Gender Construction

"Come you spirits that tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here, and fill me from head to toe, top-full of the worst cruelty".
"To be or not "..... How come?
(Shakespeare, 1606-7)

The following five points can be essential for the understanding of how the socially constructed gender. (1) The first point is that there are a number of sometimes conflicting theories that explain sex and sexual behavior are trying to raise questions that furtherResearch can not be answered completely. The second point is that gender-specific behaviors have been as responses / reactions to power and authority in such matters as the British colonization, capitalism, patriarchy, family, adult / child relationships, workplaces, groups and institutions such as schools. Point number three is that messages from the media, texts, history, popular culture and social structures are believed to have a strong influence on gender construction. Point four is that genderConstruction has been held by a 'discourse viewed'. The last point number five, that are in public places such as schools important sites of gender construction / production, reproduction. These points are all connected and can not be discussed in depth with no overlap into another.

THEORIES

The concept of gender is "one of the muddiest concepts" to Constantinople (Connell, 1993, 174). It is "problematic" (Thorne, 1993, 58), because it meansdifferent things to different people. Some use the word synonymous with the word sex. Eg. 'Gender' is written on some documents to determine the biological nature of man filling out the the form. For some who view it from a biologically determined view, it is a natural result of such things as genetics, hormones and brain organization. (Weiten, 1998, 464). For some who view it from an environmental perspective determines the word is used when it comes to the variable andnegotiable, culturally and socially constructed ways of being "male" or "female" in a particular historical or cultural circumstances (Measor and Sykes, 1992, 5). The concept is as problematic as the "nature vs. nurture" debate! It is also problematic because the concept of gender, a number of influential and pejorative vocabulary that is reinforced, introduced by popular belief and experience. For example, "Tomboy", "mushroom", "male" and "female".

The concepts raise questionssuch as: Why are the words "male" and "female" when it comes to behaviors and characteristics, which concluded that some are normal for a specific gender? Why not just call them behaviors and characteristics? Certainly leadership is not "masculine" or male behavior. Certainly care qualities are not "feminine" or female behavior.
Are there any practices that are only socially constructed? Are all physical, but differences between the sexes in societyconstructed?

How much control is becoming a person and being who they are?
Would sexless behavior means the elimination of the term "gender", "masculinity" and "femininity"? Do we become so indiscriminate that we accept as many ways of being, possible or not desired?

In the field of gender research, there are "problems" too. Although much research has been done on gender differences, conclusions were sometimes in the form of group postulatesStereotypes about "average people" who show the range of individual differences (Weiten, 1989, 462-3) fail, and make the assumption that girls and women / men and boys, a homogeneous group (Sturrock, 1995, 127) are. Differences between and within sexes were increased, as similarities were neglected in the studies. According to Howard and Hollander (1987, 12), differences between the sexes have to be minimal.

There are a number of frameworks have beenused to classify the various theories of gender. For example, Connell (1993, 41-65) are used, "extrinsic" and "intrinsic" to classify theories. The conditions make it appear that the dominant academic theory has been moved in stages from (a) promotion of the biological imperative orientation (2) a social contract one to (3) a socially constructed and is now (4) a more holistic. I will be the framework, Howard and Hollander (1997) have used as a basis to explain and discus some of the genderTheories. Dh. Essentialist theory, theory of socialization, social construction theory, and post-structural theory.
Essentialist theories suggest that "to determine natural" things like gender, genetics, hormones and brain organization of gender (Weiten, 1989, 464), (Howard and Holland, 1987, 153). These theories neglect to take into account the interplay of structural and cultural influences and human activity. They tend to equate women with sex.

In Socialization Theory have gender-specific differencesorganic origin and are primarily the result of socialization on the three main processes of "operant conditioning", "observational" and "self socialization" (Weiten, 1989, 465-7). They suggest that children actively learn through observation of role models and the reinforcement of the powerful "other" to themselves as male or female and to further value the characteristics and behaviors that classify associated with their gender. Families, schools and media are considered thethree most influential sources of gender socialization. These theories do not explain the structural and physiological effects, or why people develop the ideological positions opposed to the significant others in their environment. You have to explain some gender-specific behavior. For example, to excuse a number of mothers, which as an anti-social behavior on the grounds that it is "real boy behavior," when boys could be in the preschool age. The Community is not so happy with similar practices where the youngget a little older.

Social constructionists theorize that the sex of individuals is constructed by their actions. He sees the influence of man positions in social structure, character, and cognitive resources have to be deterministic, but missed the impact of human activities are.

Post-structural theories suggest that gender-conscious and unconscious is constructed as a result of cultural and social activities. It takes into account the complex interactions of thehuman agency with the "mandatory nature of the social structure" (Howard and Hollander, 1987, 43). It views the construction of gender as a process of "subjectification" is not socialization, and this happens through the discourses they have available to them (Davies, 1993, 13-14). These theories tend to be the influence of the physiological range, in which gender-building equation. Man is a complex entity. If gender is socially constructed only aggression, whichsometimes described as a male property, must themselves be controlled. But brain injuries and drugs such as Ritalin and progestin hormone therapies such as the impact on the social (or antisocial) are behavior (Fausto-Sterling, 1992, 134) are known. (2)

Franzoi (1996, 156), suggests that "together" to give some of the theories, a better understanding than any single perspective. Each of the theories has something to offer. Biological potential through cultural beliefs and filteredUnderstanding, the sexual division of labor, influenced, which in turn influence on gender construction. Eg. the ability to sing soprano decisions as to whether such influence or not. Some aspects of gender are learned and maintained through socialization. Social status in different social heirarchies such as race, class, age and sex influence have to do as an orientation different structures. Human agency can also be seen at work in the construction and try to deconstruct genderReal Estate

MESSAGES

Many cultural practices in the construction of gendered subjectivity involved (Clark, 1993, 81). (3) Cultural ideals about men, women, girls and boys created and maintained by open news media, news and intrinsic everywhere. The messages are embedded in and influence all areas of production, the labor market and society. For example, if clothing is designed, it is influenced by the news of the past and present. Thisbe popularized through various media channels. Also, the production process sends messages about the product. Opportunities are created for the product and influenced by a number of things such as store design and atmosphere, display design and advertising. Clothing is advertised and displayed messages on their lifestyle correctness, 'coolness', and the appropriateness of a particular sex and group exhibitions. The clothes are part of the stereotyping of a particular masculinity or femininity andSend Messages sexes. Moral judgments about who is wearing what and what not particularly clothes are made. People will resist or accept the messages in the clothing package, although lifestyle can meet the power, but. These include lifestyle and promises things like beauty, power and acceptance.

Gender messages have a strong influence on gender construction. However, they are not "simply sucked" (Clark, 1993, 81). They can be accepted or rejected. For example:Hurst House, a Victorian exile, emigrated to New Zealand because he "throw the chains of effeminacy" that would / penetrated engulfed England, and "a man" has become. He lectured and published a book that was "Extract" in a popular publication of emigration. (Phillips, 1987, 4-5). Hurst House acknowledged, and rejected the influence of gender-specific messages that he perceived in the job situation in Britain (Phillips, 1987, 4-5). He rejected what he calls "effeminate" masculinity, which he saw asas the hegemonic masculinity in his English world, and he encouraged others to do the same. Some may have been influenced by the published news open Hurst House as "New Zealand is a man's Land" and consequently emigrated. This may have increased the power of patriarchy in New Zealand and the acceptance of the Fred Dagg image.

POWER

Power (power and influence) and authority (legitimate power) are fluid and contextual '(Thorne 1993, 159). They work in many waysthrough many means to genderize. On the theory of operant conditioning, socialization, gender roles are through the power of reward and punishment marked "(Weiten, 1989, 465). Significant Others use the power of the reward and punishment to reinforce what they consider to be appropriate gender behavior. You can do this because of their positions of power. For example: adult / child relationship.

Power relations in cultural processes and social structure also genderize (Gilbertand Taylor, 6). According to James & Saville-Smith (1989, 14-16), gender, New Zealand culture evolved from the "requirements of British colonization. It was not imported, nor part of the culture of Maori. It developed as a way to cope with struggles over land. This led to social problems, which some believe led to the creation of certain forms of femininity and masculinity 'and their organization in different female (' cult of domesticity ") and male (" the man alone 'and "The Family Man") cultures. It is believed that this patriarchal cultures were maintained, because the difference has been seen as biological, that is normal and desirable, to benefit from this dominant position in the hierarchies of race, class and gender. There were also some advantages to some groups, the subordinated position, their access to power and resources were extended. The "glass cellar" effect, where men feel drawn up "in dangerous jobs because they pay the money could be used tosupport this theory. (4)

Power has a restrictive function of social practice (Connell, 1987, 107). His role as a constraint can in the so-called "glass ceiling" effect when "male dominance" has led to, among other things, that women who keep the conditions to see from advancing into positions of power and prestige (Connell, 1987, 83 ). 5 It can also be seen in the limit to legitimate, and / or marginalization of certain forms of masculinity and femininity. Power also plays a role in whichis questioned or disputed. Clark (1993, 83) suggests that some forms of sex because they persist not put into question or denied.

Power forms of language and knowledge and that includes the definition of words in relation to gender. This power can, how and what adults teach children, or what children learn from adults, and what educational institutions such as schools and universities, presented as acceptable language and knowledge to be learned can be seen. Some words, theories andIssues are made more in all kinds because of the power that individuals, groups and institutions. (6) Those who support and / or they are also investing in power.

Power in all the works of the structures and processes of credentialing which in turn empowers those who are credentialed. 7 According to Connell (1993, 199) credentials open the door to a gender identity of men, that forms of passivity, rationality and responsibility in how to "pride are opposedand recognize aggression "for those who are not. 8 Under Kerr (1991, 69 & 72) there is a sense of" separation "and the refusal, women, and restrictions that it important to resist women, the daily flood of correspond to stereotyped sex-role images and media commentaries 'and' powerful peer group pressure ". Fleming (1996, 138) drives an argument for social self-esteem as an important factor in androgyny and the agency. (9) Perhaps the measure of the power in the most influenceon what form of masculinity or femininity (species of behavior / features, etc.) of a person exhibits / accepted / constructs / resists. (10)

DISCOURSE

The social construction of gender takes place through "discourse". Post-Feminist Theory structural changes of the "ideological" understanding of the word to mean the complex interactions between language, social practice and emotional investment (Yelland, 1998, 159).

Language is used to people on the basis of sex and categorizeSex. For example, women / men, male / female, waitress / waiter. These categories establish expectations about people should be like. For example: The category "girl" influences gender-specific expectations about what a girl looks and works, etc. Patterns of desire in relation to certain categories and social practices become revealed. (For example, clothing is designed to distinguish girls from boys). Emotional investment is made to ensure that the social practices "law." Discoursescreate a sense of what is right and / or normal and can be institutionalized so that some people exercise the power. For example, Piaget's Theory Parenting and age and theories. These discourses that dominate more political or social power, and can marginalize others. This political force can be derived from their institutional location. For example, schools.

Although gender is actively negotiating, "powerful discourses circulate in and about social structures and institutions" andForm hopes that some "ways of being" is more possible than others (Yelland, 1998, 160). According to Weedon (Yelland, 1998, 160), the scope and power of social discourse, the political strength of the interests they represent individuals and their accessibility to some of the people will determine gendered take decisions.

SITES

Gendered behavior is often visible in public places, particularly in public places like schools (Thorne, 1993, 49-55). Schools are important placesConstruction of gender and reproduction, they consciously unconsciously invested (and The Hidden Curriculum because not so! With authority) to reproduce dominant ideologies, hierarchies and gender culture. For example, "hegemonic masculinity and emphasized femininity" (Connell, 1985, 183). This is achieved by such things as age segregation, the choice of knowledge done, schedules, resources, teachers' expectations, interactions, control of space and heirachical structures. 11 You areareas of importance because of the inequalities that produce their gender-specific structures and practices for their "audience" and because it served a place where change can and. For example, one of the changes, the primary schools in the name of anti-sexism was made to eliminate the images of women in traditional gender roles and images of men in non-traditional gender roles. This powerful practice was another form of "sexism" and Gendering. It sent and continues to sendvalue-laden messages about (the behavior / properties), the forms of masculinity and femininity are allowed. This may have contributed to the loss of social status and other negative attitudes that women who remain "at home" now often choose to forward (McKenna, 1997, 130-1).

Preliminary conclusion

Gender construction is so complex a subject as man, and would benefit from multi-and interdisciplinary analysis (Miller, 1993 benefit, 17). It can be viewed as a form ofSelf-preservation. As an individual and social construction, it is active in response negotiated and / or response to power and authority, and news from around the world including the media. Gendered practices tend to vary with the context. Flexibility is not only in the development of a gender self-concept (Fausto-Sterling, 1992, 89 views), but also in its maintenance. It is not a rigid way of being, or a passive form of "osmosis" (Yelland, 1998, 7). However, it can be shaped by the needs of externalInfluences such as drugs and the way in which powerful discourses circulate, and, social structures and institutions "(Yelland, 1998, 149).

MacNaughton encouraged people to continue to theorize for more efficient ways and not rely on search to found the "right track" (Yelland, 1998, 172).

Perhaps the door will be opened in order to assess the diversity of behaviors that are possible and useful for unique people to express themselves, not so much by the deletioncertain forms of masculinity and femininity, but by being seen and experienced. Dh. The limitation of the hegemonic nature of some forms.

Oh to be sexless, which can be love without limit!

Be or not to be? How it works really happened?

If the answer may be practiced, it would be what we really wanted?

Footnotes

1st "Substantial" is too strong for me, after such a short excursion into this topic to use.

2nd It is interesting to note also that aCorrelation between talent and physical strength, talents and intellectual abilities have been found, and intellectual skills, and some forms of masculinity and femininity (Clark, 1992, 509, 516).

3rd "Subjectivity" describes who we are and how we see ourselves, consciously and unconsciously "(Yelland, 1998, 13).

4th "Invisible barriers that keep people in jobs with the most threats' Farrell, 1994, 107)

5th "Invisible to prevent barriers and difficulties that women increasesin organizations' (McLennan, 1995, 189).

6th The "Power to the sciences are" connected. "They represent an institutionalized version of power claim hat is of central importance in the hegemonic masculinity" (Connell, 1993, 201).

7th According to Connell (1993, 200), "forms of masculinity and education constitutes masculinity. One could also argue that femininity is doing the same thing. The "feminization" of schools is one of the reasons for boys called lack of success at school (videoClassroom).

8th It is interesting that, gifted girls, who entered the traditional female sex behavior to reject higher intellectual skills than those who accept the female stereotype (Clark, 1992, 509) have. Or the other way, androgyny is a characteristic that frequently observed in gifted girls.

9th Instrumental traits (independence, determination), which will contribute to a "sense of agency viewed as stereotypically male" (Fleming and Hollinger, 1988, 254). Do people needa sense of agency in order to construct it?

10th With more space and time, the connections of power could be verified with the fear, because they have a major influence on the decisions the sexes. McKenna (1997, 132) calls it a "strong adhesive."

11th "The researchers found that went together the sex and age segregation separation" (Thorne, 1993, 50).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Clark, M. (1992) Growing Up Gifted. 3rd Edition. New York: Merrill Publishing Company.

Clark, M. (1993) The GreatDivide. Gender in the primary school. Brunswick: Impact Printing

Connell, R. (1993) Gender & Power. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers

Davies, B. (1993) glass shards. St Leonards: Allen and Unwin.

Farrell, W. (1994) The myth of male power. Milsons Point: Random House Australia Pty Ltd

Fausto-Sterling, A. (1985) Myths of gender. Biological theories about women and men. Revised Edition. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, Inc.

Franzoi, SL (1996) SocialPsychology. Dubuque: Brown & Benchmark.

Gilbert, P. and Taylor, S. (1991) Fashioning the Feminine. Girls, popular culture and education. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.

Howard, J. and Hollander, J. (1997) Gendered Situations, Gendered Selves. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.

James, B. and Saville-Smith, K. (1989) Gender Culture & Power. Critical Issues in New Zealand Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kerr, A. (1991) Smart girls, gifted women. Cheltenham:Hawker Brownlow Education.

Limerick, B. and Lingard, B. (ed.). (1995) Gender and Changing Educational Management. Rydalmere: Hodder Education

McKenna, E. (1997) When work no longer work. Adelaide: Griffin Press.

McLennan, R. (ed.) (1995) people and businesses. Organisational Behaviour in New Zealand. 2nd Edition. Sydney: Harcourt Brace and Company.

Measor, L. and Sikes, P. (1993) Introduction to Educaton. Gender and school. London: Cassell.

Miller, B.(ED). (1993) Sex and gender hierarchies. Cambridge: University Press.

Phillips, J. (1987) A Man's Land? The image of the Pakeha Male. A story. Auckland: Penguin Books

Rudduck, J. (1994) developing a gender policy in secondary schools. Individuals and institutions. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Shakespeare, W. (no date on this old book. Editor could be B. Hodek) Shakespeare. Complete Works. Comedies. Histories. Tragedies, poems. London: Spring Books

Thorne,B. (1993) Gender play. Girls and boys in school. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Weiten, W. (1989) Psychology. Theme and variations. Third Edition. Pacific Grove: Brooks / Cole Publishing Company.

Yelland, N. (1998) Gender in early childhood. (Ed) London: Routledge.

ARTICLE

Fleming, E. and Hollinger, C. (1984) Internal obstacles to the realization of potential: Correlates and interrelationships among gifted and talented female adolescents inGifted Child Quarterly. 28th Volume Number 3

Fleming, E. and Hollinger, C. (1988), gifted children and women: history and correlates of life satisfaction in Gifted Child Quarterly. 32nd Band Number 2

VIDEO

The Trouble With Boys. Education and Training Resources. Melbourne: VC Media Classroom Video

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